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How do psychologists define and use the concept of personality ?

Personality is defined as a unique set of enduring characteristics and patterns of behavior (including thoughts and emotions) that influence the way a person adjusts to his or her environment. The study of personality seeks to describe individuals, the ways in which they are similar to one another, and the ways in which each of us is unique. The study of personality involves describing the structure of personality, identifying the dynamics or processes involved, and developing research tools and applications. Cultural factors need to be considered in the study of personality.

Personality: The sum total of characteristics that differentiate people , or

The stability in a person’s behavior across different situations

What is the structure and development of personality according to Psychoanalysis ?

Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis focuses on the internal, often unconscious forces that cause people to act in certain ways. Freud described personality as a result of a constant struggle between the id, ego and superego. People are born with two innate drives: Eros or life instincts (propelled by the libido) and Thanatos (destructive aims). Freud also identified specific stages of personality development (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital). An individual’s personality is formed during these stages in early childhood. The neo-Freudians revised Freud’s theory. Carl Jung disagreed with Freud’s view of the libido as being the sexual energy of life. Jung developed a complex, mystical theory of personality that included the influence of the collective unconscious. He also believed that personality was not fully integrated until our middle and later years. Alfred Adler also disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on sexuality. He proposed that people try to overcome their inferiorities by striving for superiority.

Unconscious: A part of the personality of which a person is unaware and which is a potential determinant of behavior

life instinct: need for food, water, air, and sex,..... yes also sex!

death instinct: need to reduce all tensions by returning to a calm lifeless state,

Id: The raw, unorganized, inherited part of personality whose purpose is to reduce tension created by biological drives and irrational impulses.

Libido: Freud’s term for the instinctive drives, or energies that motivate behavior; the sexual energy underlying biological urges

Pleasure principle: the principle by which the id operates, in which the person seeks the immediate reduction of tension and the maximization of satisfaction

Ego: the part of personality that provides a buffer between the id and the outside world

Reality principle: the principle by which the ego operates, in which instinctual energy is retained in order to maintain an individual’s safety and integration into society

Superego: the part of personality that represents the morality of society as presented by parents, teachers and others

Conscience: The part of the superego that prevents us from doing what is morally wrong

Ego-ideal : the part of the superego that motivates us to do what is morally proper

Oral stage: According to Freud, a stage from birth to from 12 to 18 months, in which an infant’s center of pleasure is the mouth, fixation leads to dependent, passive, demanding personality

Fixation: Behavior reflecting an earlier stage of development

Anal stage: According to Freud, from 12 to 18 months to 3 years, in which the child’s pleasure is centered on the anus, fixation leads to rebellious, punctual, disorganized, messy, stubborn personality

Phallic stage: According to Freud, a period around age 3 which a child’s interest focuses on the genitals, fixation leads to a self-serving, vain , arrogant

Oedipal conflict: A child’s sexual interest in his or her opposite-sex parent, typically resolved through identification with the same-sex parent

Identification: A child’s attempt to be similar to his or her same-sex parent

Penis envy: According to Freud, a girl’s wish, developing around age 3, that she had a penis

Latency period: According to Freud, the period, between the phallic stage and puberty, during which children’s sexual concern are temporarily put aside.

Genital stage: According to Freud, a period from puberty until death marked by mature sexual behavior

Anxiety: A feeling of apprehension or tension

Neurotic anxiety: Anxiety caused when irrational impulses from the id threaten to become uncontrollable

Defense mechanisms: Unconscious strategies people use to reduce anxiety by concealing its source from themselves and others

Repression: The primary defense mechanism, in which unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into the unconscious

Regression: Behavior reminiscent of an earlier stage of development, carried out as a defense mechanism in order to have fewer demands put upon oneself

Displacement: The expression of an unwanted feeling or thought, directed toward a weaker person

Rationalization: A defense mechanism whereby people justify a negative situation in a way that protects their self -esteem

Denial: A defense mechanism through which people refuse to accept or acknowledge anxiety producing information

Reaction Formation: A defense mechanism in which one converts an unacceptable feelings into its opposite shortcomings

Projection: A defense mechanism in which people attribute their own inadequacies or faults to someone else

Sublimation: A defense mechanism, considered healthy by Freud, in which a person diverts unwanted impulses into socially acceptable thoughts, feelings or behaviors.

Collective Unconscious: A concept developed by Jung proposing that we inherit certain personality characteristics from our ancestors and the human race as a whole

Archetypes: According to Jung, universal, symbolic representations or a particular person, object, or experience (Jung)

Inferiority complex: A phenomenon whereby adults have continuing feelings of weakness and insecurity (Adler)

What are the major aspects of trait, learning and humanistic theories of personality ?

People can be categorized as representing different types by analyzing traits. Traits are viewed as enduring qualities that cause people to act, think or perceive in a relatively stable way across a variety of situations. Trait theories have tried to identify the most basic and relatively enduring dimensions along which people differ from one another. Gordon Allport suggested that there are three kinds of traits--cardinal, central and secondary. Later theorist employed a statistical technique called factor analysis to identify the most crucial traits. Using this method, Cattell identified sixteen basic traits, while Eysenck found two major dimensions: introversion-extroversion and neuroticism-stability.

Trait theory: A model that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality

Traits: Enduring dimensions of personality characteristics differentiating people from one another

Cardinal trait: A single personality trait that directs most of a person’s activities

Central traits: A set of major characteristics that make-up the core of a person’s personality

Secondary traits: less important personality traits that do not affect behavior as much as central and cardinal traits do

Learning theories of personality concentrate on observable behavior. To the strict learning theorist, personality is the sum of learned responses to the external environment. In contrast, social learning theory concentrates on the role of cognitions in determining personality.

Social learning theory pays particular attention to self-efficacy and reciprocal determinism in determining behavior

Observational learning: Learning that is the result of viewing the actions of others and observing the consequences

Reciprocal determinism: The view that the interaction of environment, behavior, and the individual causes people to behave the way that they do.

Determinism: The view suggesting that people’s behavior is shaped primarily by factors outside their control

Humanistic theories stress the creative aspect of people and argue that they are driven by the desire to reach their true potential. Maslow suggested that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy like rungs on a ladder. The most basic needs are on the bottom. Self actualization is at the top and the goal toward which we all strive. Carl Rogers believed that people must accept themselves (their feelings and behaviors) before they can begin to reach their potential. People can reach their potential only to the extent that they can accept all their personal experiences as part of their self concept. Humanistic theories have led to research in such areas as self-esteem and creativity.

Humanistic theory: The theory that emphasizes people’s basic goodness and their natural tendency to rise to higher levels of functioning

Self-concept: The impression one holds of oneself

Unconditional positive regard: Supportive behavior from another individual, regardless of one’s` words or actions

Self-actualization: a state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential

Nomothetic approaches to personality: the study of personality accentuating the broad uniformities across behavior

Idiographic approaches to personality: The study of personality emphasizing what makes one person different from others

How can we most accurately assess personality and what are the major types of personality measures ?

Personality assessment is the description and measurement of individual characteristics. Behavioral assessment focuses on observing behavior in various situations. Naturalistic observation allows us to examine people when they are unaware they are being studied. Psychologists ask questions in structured and unstructured interviews. Projective personality tests present an ambiguous stimulus; the observer’s response are then used to infer information about the observer. The most frequently used projective tests are the Rorschach, in which reactions to inkblots are employed to classify personality types.

Psychological tests: standard measures devised to objectively assess behavior

Summary of Personality Theories

	Theory and Major Figure	Important Period(s)	View of Basic Human Nature	Guiding Force of Personality	Important Concepts
Theories of Personality	Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud	Early Childhood	self-centered	internal (libido)	id, ego, superego, conscious, preconscious, unconscious
	Analytical psychology Carl Jung	Early childhood middle years, and later years	positive- strive to achieve balance among opposites	internal	ego, personal conscious, collective unconscious, archetypes, opposites
	Individual psychology Alfred Adler	childhood	positive	internal, but influenced by social environment	social interest, organization in family, inferiority complex, style of life
	Humanistic theory Rogers, Maslow	childhood, later adulthood	very positive	internal basic needs and striving for self actualization	basic needs, self actualization, self concept, unconditional positive regard
	Behaviorism BF Skinner	present	no reference to basic human nature	external environment	operant behavior, schedules of reinforcement, shaping
	Social Learning Theory Bandura, Walters	present	no reference to basic human nature	external ( reinforcement and models)	response, observational learning, model
	Cognitive Learning Theory Bandura, Rotter, Mischel	present ( past and expected future situations also influential)	no reference to basic human nature	external factors and cognitions, thoughts, expectancies, plans interpretations, view of self	cognitions, plus expectancies, locus of control , self -efficacy